|
Sylvia Piterman
Director, Foreign Currency Department
29 November 2000
Inflation, the Exchange Rate, Financial Markets, and Growth:1
the "Giloh Effect"2 and Other Effects
Is the "Giloh Effect" in line with initial forecasts?
The security-related events started about two months ago, and anyone brave
enough at that time to make an economic forecast of their effect would have
been on target regarding real-market developments, but would have been wide
off the mark as to their financial effects. Sometimes we are privileged to be
pleasantly surprised!
The "Giloh Effect" and the real markets
The most immediate and the strongest effect of the events is that on tourism.
Similar reactions have occurred in periods of military tension in the past, and in
this respect history is repeating itself. A second effect is that on exports to the
Palestinian Autonomy and on the sectors which are Palestinian-labor-intensive,
i.e., construction and agriculture.
Another real effect is combined with a financial one: high-tech activity is highly
dependent on the flow of capital into venture-capital funds. The new situation,
which is likely to reduce the flow of investments into these funds, might cause
difficulties for high-tech companies. The first signs of this effect can be seen in
the decline in foreign investments in the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange (TASE), and
in the fall in stock prices of Israeli companies.
The "Giloh Effect" and the financial markets
The consequence for GDP of the adverse effect on real activity is an ongoing
one, and can only be assessed in the fullness of time. The immediate reaction
to exceptional events, however, is always first felt in the financial markets. The
financial markets are those which give expression in the present to
expectations regarding what is to happen in the financial and real markets. The
"Giloh Effect" on the financial markets was likely to have been severe: the
crumbling of what is known as the shekel mountain, the collapse of the stock
market and the indexed and unindexed bond market, and a rush into the
foreign-currency market. What would we have predicted regarding depreciation
if we had been told that in addition to the security situation there would be falls
on NASDAQ, and rumors that Argentina was considering defaulting on its
debts? All this even if we would have disregarded the fact that the crisis itself
was likely to push oil prices even higher than the inflated level they had
reached recently. Would we not have expected that inflationary expectations
and actual market prices would rise sharply, and that the Bank of Israel would
have to raise the rate of interest to prevent an acceleration in inflation?
Table 1 shows the "Giloh Effect" to date. What do the figures show? In the first
two weeks, until October 12, the markets reacted to some extent. Thereafter,
there were fluctuations around a fairly stable level.
Table 1: The "Giloh Effect" (%)**
| |
Stock exchange |
|
|
|
| |
Change in Tel Aviv 100 index |
Change in Tel Aviv High-Tech index |
Change in NIS/$ exchange rate |
Return on 7-year Shahar bonds |
Risk premium on 5-year bonds |
| |
Total |
Relative to Dow Jones* |
Total |
Relative to NASDAQ* |
|
29/9-12/10 |
-16.1 |
-11.0 |
-22.9 |
-7.8 |
2.8 |
8.4 ->8.8 |
1.25 ->1.80 |
|
13/10-23/11 |
-0.3 |
-3.4 |
-6.7 |
4.6 |
-0.4 |
8.8 ->8.3 |
1.80 ->2.00 |
* The comparison is carried out by means of the dollar value of the Israeli indices.
**Since November 23 the quoted figures have not changed significantly.
SOURCE: Bloomberg and Reuters data, and Foreign Currency and Monetary Departments,
Bank of Israel.
What factors had we overlooked that resulted in our being pleasantly surprised
in this area? There are apparently three main reasons for the moderate
reaction of the financial markets: first, the long process towards financial
stability in Israel's economy which has continued for some 15 years (since the
1985 Economic Stabilization Program). Although significant achievements have
been attained in this sphere, there are still threats hovering over the economy
which must not be ignored. Second is the widely held view, shared by foreign
investors, that the security unrest is temporary, and that it is part of the ups and
downs which are typical of peace-making processes. This opinion is expressed
in various surveys of Israel's economy published by large investment houses.
Third, the very fact that the markets are free to react fully to the situation helps
make them more stable. What would have happened if the Bank of Israel would
have started selling foreign currency instead of allowing the exchange rate to
find its own proper level? The very act of selling reserves would have
weakened the economy and would have prevented the natural reaction to
foreign-currency flows evident in the first days of the unrest.
We will now take a broader look at the changes that took place in the economy,
as well as the threats which still loom. We will wrap it all up with a few possible
scenarios, aiming at shedding some light on future developments. We should
bear in mind, in any event, that financial markets do not always react in a
continuos way. If violence continues or gets worse we might still experience a
sharp reaction in financial markets.
What is the difference between today's situation and similar situations
in the past?
"My grandmother's hindsight is much better," said the writer Sholem Aleichem,
"than all wise men's foresight." Nevertheless, in the dynamic world in which we
live, if wise men scorn grandma's wisdom based on hindsight, their forecasts
will be even wider off the mark.
What are the main changes which have taken place in our economic
environment? What have we achieved, and what remaining threats must we
confront?
Achievements
Reducing the rate of inflation
The government's decision to reach price stability by 2003-with the "contractor"
responsible for doing the job, the Bank of Israel, regarding that as its prime
objective-projects stability over all the economic systems. The Bank of Israel treats the
inflation targets set by the government very seriously, and has spared no effort to achieve
them. This seriousness has resulted in the last two years in inflation being below the
target. It happened as the Bank itself - as well as the markets and various forecasters -
did not assess the extent of the changes in this area correctly. In an uncertain world, the
Bank continued with its cautious, conservative policy. Nevertheless, although this policy
led to an unintended (by the Bank) downward deviation from the target, it boosted the
Bank's credibility in the eyes of the public in Israel and abroad.
The improvement regarding the exchange rate and the foreign-currency market
The foreign-currency market has undergone far-reaching changes: first, the very
commitment to inflation targets to some extent provides an anchor for the exchange rate
too, as it is clear to all that the central bank will not stand idly by while a rise in the
exchange rate endangers price stability. If so, why only "to some extent?" The answer is
that if there is pressure for a real depreciation of the NIS, nominal depreciation may be
faster than the rate of price increases (viz. the European experience since the launch of
the Euro). However, in the absence of such pressures, a rise in the exchange rate, if it
persists, is likely to result in too rapid a rate of price increases. The Bank of Israel's
decisive reaction in preempting price rises, which threaten to deviate from the target, is a
very important factor in providing a firm support for the exchange rate. Developments at
the end of 1998 and beginning of 1999 provided very important experience with such a
situation. The policy which the Bank implemented at that time, intended to bring inflation
back to a level consistent with the target, brought the exchange rate a long way back.
And this even though the Bank did not have then and does not have now any target
regarding the level or path of the exchange rate.
Second, evidence that the inflation target affects the exchange rate on the base of
experience in 1998-99 is provided by the fact that after nominal depreciation the
foreign-currency market reacts immediately with nominal appreciation, without the need
for any reaction by the Bank of Israel. Table 2 gives figures relating to two experiences
we have undergone since then. These two involved a much milder reaction of inflationary
expectations and prices to changes in the rate of exchange, that way rendering a policy
reaction unnecessary.
Table 2: The connection between changes in the exchange rate, inflationary
expectations, price changes, and the Bank of Israel's policy
(Percent)
| |
Change in average currency basket exchange rate |
Change in inflation expectations |
Actual price rises |
Bank of Israel interest rate policy* |
|
10/98** |
10.9 |
5.3 ->10.4 |
3.0 |
9.5 ->13.5
|
|
11/98-3/99 |
-6.3 |
10.4 ->4.9 |
-0.1 |
13.5 ->13.0
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
8/99-10/99*** |
6.1 |
4.3 ->4.9 |
1.6 |
11.5 ->11.5
|
|
11/99-3/00 |
-8.6 |
4.9 ->2.5 |
-1.4 |
11.5 ->9.6
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
4/00-6/00**** |
2.0 |
2.5 ->3.6 |
1.6 |
9.6 ->9.3
|
|
7/00-9/00 |
-3.9 |
3.6 ->2.3 |
-0.8 |
9.3 ->8.6
|
* The rate of interest set by the Bank of Israel at the end of the relevant period.
** The bankruptcy of LTCM and the global crisis which followed.
*** Shocks in financial markets worldwide related to implications of Y2K Bug.
**** Sharp falls on NASDAQ.
SOURCE: Foreign Currency and Monetary Departments of the Bank of Israel, and CBS data.
Third, an important lesson learnt from events in August-October 1998 was the necessity
and logic of implementing the Bank of Israel's non-intervention policy. Till then it was
generally believed that the Bank would not allow exchange-rate changes of the
magnitude which actually occurred at the time, without intervening in the market. The
lesson learnt from the Bank's non-intervention in the foreign-currency market meant that
foreign and domestic investors and the domestic business sector had to rethink their
strategies. This led to a gradual reduction in the business sector's exposure to changes in
the exchange rate, particularly to depreciation (see Table 3). Investors also try to avoid
currency risk; for example, when foreign investors buy stocks in Israel, they use credit in
NIS (which is why foreign financial companies are very active in $/NIS swaps). In the
absence of currency exposure, selling investments does not cause pressure for
depreciation.
Table 3: Development of exchange-rate exposure of different sectors*
(percent of GDP)
| |
1994 |
1995 |
1996 |
1997 |
1998 |
1999 |
10/2000 |
|
Business sector |
-4.9 |
-11.0 |
-11.4 |
-15.2 |
-13.1 |
-10.5 |
-6.1 |
|
Non-business sector |
14.5 |
13.1 |
12.0 |
11.2 |
12.9 |
13.5 |
13.5 |
|
Banks |
1.1 |
0.8 |
0.9 |
0.3 |
0.3 |
0.7 |
0.5 |
|
Total |
10.6 |
2.9 |
1.5 |
-3.6 |
-0.2 |
3.5 |
8.0 |
*Minus indicates exposure, namely net foreign liabilities
SOURCE: Data processed by the Foreign Exchange Control Department, Bank of Israel.
Fiscal discipline
In this area, too, much progress has been made since the days of the uncontrolled deficits
of the early 1980s. Despite heavy fiscal pressure, the government has succeeded in
executing a policy of a downward-sloping deficit path, and has actually decided to bring
the deficit down to the levels determined by the European Union by the year 2003.
Israel's improved status in analyses by the rating companies
The developments described above, together with high-tech-oriented growth, greatly
improved Israel's economic situation. To conclude this section, we will refer to the
arguments listed by Moody's when Israel's foreign-currency-debt rating was raised (from
A3 to A2, or from A- to A in S&P's "language"). The company gave two main reasons
for their decision: the first was that Israel's economy, a modern economy led by a
high-tech export sector, is on a sustainable growth path, with low inflation, a declining
budget deficit, and firmly implementing structural reforms. The second reason was that
with greater economic robustness, economic performance is less vulnerable to
changes in the geopolitical environment. Moody's mentions various other factors
which provided support for the decision to improve Israel's rating, such as a population
with a high educational level, a young demographic profile combined with reform of the
pension system, an entrepreneurial culture, large direct foreign investment, and a sound
financial system.
Threats
Key issues referred to by Moody's in their report were: tax reform, contraction of the
public sector, continued decline in inflation expectations, and the way internal
disagreements are handled. We will refer to some aspects in our own field.
Threats to the budget against the background of the political situation
The current situation, in which the government does not have a parliamentary majority,
has given rise to a process in which almost every day laws which benefit certain segments
of the population and which have far-reaching fiscal implications are being passed in the
Knesset. This process has not yet had any effect because no-one really believes that these
laws will be carried out, a view which is shared also by foreign investors and the rating
companies. If such irresponsible legislation continues, however, and if attempts are made
to put these laws into effect, the economy will be set back several years in many respects,
particularly with regard to the world's willingness to invest here. This threat has become
even bigger now, after early elections were called.
Threats related to wages
Wages are not left out of the attempts to introduce populist legislation. Proposals to
raise the minimum wage, when inflation is very low, are likely to lead to the closure of
factories and a rise in unemployment. It should also be pointed out that the norms related
to wage drift, which are deeply rooted in many collective wage agreements, are a relic of
time when inflation would erode a significant part of the drift. With high inflation
nominal wage increases could be given without a significant rise in the real wage. Under
current conditions of low inflation, such agreements can cause wage increase far in
excess of what factories or the government can afford to pay. This is an area that must
urgently be brought into line with the new reality.
The risks inherent in halting the reforms of the financial markets
There is still a long way to go in various areas of financial markets reform. Special
attention has to be given to the development of non-banking financial intermediation and
reduction of the degree of concentration in the capital market. It is also crucial to
continue increasing the share of non-indexed assets and liabilities in the public's
portfolio. Lastly, we can mention the need for raising the tradable part of the government
debt, solving the actuarial problems of the pension funds and changing their management
rules. All these are vital to reinforce the financial stability of Israel's economy and to
increase its resistance to crises. Despite all the above, Israel's banking system is stable,
and that fact satisfactorily maintains financial stability.
What does the future hold?
The superiority of hindsight has been mentioned above; it is fitting, therefore, that every
forecast should be clothed in a double layer of modesty. The big unknown in Israel's
economy is connected to two main factors. One is the political-security reality. The other
is "The Coming Internet Depression," the title of a book by Michael Mandel, Business
Week's economic editor. The main claim in the book is that the boom of the New
Economy, led to a great extent by developments in risk capital, and specifically by
high-tech stock prices, is likely to turn into a depression. As we will explain below, if this
does occur, Israel would also be affected, and not in a positive way.
The geopolitical reality
There are many scenarios for the geopolitical reality. The realization of the optimistic
scenario-of reaching a peace settlement in the foreseeable future-would entail only a
marginal adverse effect on GDP. Even if it takes several months to win back tourists,
tourism constitutes only a small part of GDP. Some of the decline in incoming tourism
will also be replaced by internal tourism, a process which is taking place.
Most forecasts, however, are based on the scenario of a limited but drawn-out military
confrontation. In such a case, if there is no change in financial developments, the growth
rate for 2001 would suffer by about one to two and a half percentage points (taking into
account the effect on tourism, on exports to the Palestinian Autonomy and on sectors
heavily dependent on Palestinian employees.). The assumption of no change regarding
financial developments, however, is a rather strong one. If the current situation
continues, there is a risk of a decline in the flow of capital, which has supported the
exceptional advance of the high-tech industries. This would create pressure on the
foreign-currency market and cause depreciation, as well as greater pressure on the stock
market.
The transition to a depression in the business cycle of the New Economy
The second factor mentioned above was the end of the boom in the current business
cycle of high-tech industries. The change originates in the US, which has undergone a
long boom. This boom, which constituted the pinnacle of world economic growth in the
last few years, was to a great extent led by a large flow of capital to finance
technological innovation, together with a persistent boom in the stock market. The
transition from boom to depression in the US is likely to have an adverse effect on
economic growth in Israel, directly, as a result of the reduction in the flow of capital
which served to finance technology here as well, and indirectly, because of the
contraction of total global demand.
It should be noted that every shock originating from the advanced countries which
affects global capital flows can cause far more harm to emerging markets such as Israel's
than to those advanced countries themselves, even if the latter are at in the eye of the
storm. As mentioned above, however, Israel has used the last few years to strengthen its
economy and to create defense mechanisms so necessary in a world of free capital flows
characterized by high volatility. The existence of stabilizing factors is vital in such a
world: clear and transparent economic policy, a stable, strong financial sector, a
government and an economy untainted by corruption, and an exchange-rate regime
sufficiently flexible to survive difficult times without crumbling.
A reduction in capital flows which results from global developments, as outlined above,
could slow down the rapid growth of the high-tech sector, which was at the forefront of
Israel's economic growth in the last few years. Such a situation could also put pressure
on the foreign-currency market and other financial markets.
Does depreciation of the NIS mean a rise in the inflation rate?
As stated, pressure on the foreign-currency market would result in depreciation of the
NIS, but even if the depreciation were significant, it would not necessarily affect prices,
for several reasons. First, for some years the link between the exchange rate and prices
has weakened. Second, the public's trust in the seriousness of the Bank of Israel's
intentions regarding inflation can prevent the exchange rate rise from being immediately
and fully reflected by prices. Thirdly, the effect of depreciation on prices can be
moderated because the reduction in demand creates pressures for a real depreciation,
which can play a positive role in the economy's recovery, mainly in the traditional
industries, which have been operating at a low level for some considerable time. Such a
recovery can offset, at least in part, the damage to GDP caused by the other factors.
Finally, some words of realistic hope
What would Sholem Aleichem's dear old grandmother have to say if she were with us
today? I suspect we would hear a deep sigh. That is why this talk has been devoted to an
assessment of the reflection in the financial sphere of the security crisis in which we find
ourselves today. What of the future? A firm hand on the helm and a keen eye on the
horizon, while they may not guarantee a smooth voyage, will ensure a safe arrival.
______________
1This address was prepared for the first meeting, on 30 November 2000, of the Workshop for the
Assessment of the Economic Situation and Forecast for 2001, organized by the Financial Institute of
Israel.
2The Giloh Effect refers to the effect of the recent security-related events; it is not to be taken as
suggesting that events related to Giloh are of greater importance than those in other locations.
|